Saskatchewan Education. (1997).
English Language Arts: A Curriculum Guide for the Middle Level (Grades 6-9).
Regina, SK:
Saskatchewan Education.Humanities Unit
Curriculum and Instruction Branch
Saskatchewan Education
2220 College Avenue
Regina, Saskatchewan
S4P 3V7
Canada

Reading

Reading is more than the decoding of written words into sound. Reading is a complex communication process which requires thought and individual construction of meaning.

Reading instruction at the Middle Level takes into consideration the general developmental needs of the students as well as their individual reading abilities. When considering the reading needs of Middle Level students, it is important to realize that all readers (ineffective readers, average readers, and proficient readers) differ considerably in their interests, aptitudes, personalities, backgrounds, and learning styles. Their varied needs can be addressed successfully in a reading program that includes features such as the following:

• Silent reading is modelled by the teacher and class time is provided for students to engage in sustained silent reading.
  
• The teacher regularly reads aloud to the students.
  
• The students read aloud from selections they have chosen, after they have had the opportunity to practise.
  
• There is a combination of guided reading instruction and independent reading time in which students have opportunities to read material of their choice and practise the strategies they have learned during guided reading experiences.
  
• When required, instruction about comprehension strategies and language skills are modelled by the teacher and provided in the context of student reading selections.
  
• Background knowledge and experiences of students are considered prior to instruction and to selection of relevant material.
  
• Reading abilities are developed and used in conjunction with writing, speaking, and listening in an integrated manner.
  
• Students are encouraged to respond to literature and other material personally and critically.
  
• Teachers facilitate rather than lead discussions about what is read (e.g., Literature Circles).
  
• Opportunities are provided for various group structures to interact (heterogeneous as well as homogeneous; interest groups as well as ability level groups).

Incorporating features such as those listed above makes it possible to establish a community of readers who:

• value reading and choose to read for a variety of purposes, in and out of the classroom
  
• share with peers response to what they have read (e.g., Book Talks, Literature Circles)
  
• respond to literature in a variety of ways (e.g., response journals, role plays, illustrations)
  
• recommend reading materials to peers and exchange books with peers.

Reading development varies depending upon the personal, social, and cultural experiences of the student. When readers have mastered the how-to-read skills, they develop higher level skills, attitudes, and behaviours in reading. A developing reader may demonstrate proficiency when reading some written formats or genres (e.g., narrative text) and remain an emerging reader when reading others (e.g., expository text).

The chart that follows in this section contrasts the characteristics of proficient readers with those of readers who are ineffective at making sense of what they read.

The Reading Classroom

Although the following points describe reading activity in an exemplary classroom, it should be understood that the writing, reading, speaking, and listening processes are intended to be integrated. Several elements from each process should be at work in all language arts experiences in the classroom.

In the classroom the following should be in evidence:

• the teacher modelling and sharing reading strategies as well as a personal joy of reading
  
• the students and the teacher reading and discussing a variety of genres (e.g., novels, poetry, short stories, essays, editorials, biography, informational articles, and books)
  
• the students, and often the teacher, participating in silent reading on a regular basis
  
• the students independently selecting and reading a variety of resources
  
• the teacher reading aloud to students on a regular basis
  
• the students reading aloud or practising prior to reading aloud
  
• the teacher using integrated units of study based on curriculum objectives and students' needs and interests
  
• the students developing their reading strategies and skills within meaningful contexts, rather than in isolation
  
• the students willing to take risks and offering diverse responses to literature
  
• the teacher using a variety of learning situations for instruction (e.g., individual/independent activities, whole class, flexible small groups, partners)
  
• the teacher using instructional strategies that promote reflection, discussion, and critical thinking (e.g., Literature Circles, Reader Response)
  
• the students engaging in reading activities that access and activate students' prior knowledge before, during, and after reading
  
• the students and teacher assessing reading abilities and strategies using checklists, conferences, and anecdotal notes and using the data to inform instructional decisions.

 

Proficient Readers	Ineffective Readers
Before Reading
Understand that reading is a sense-making process   Build up their background knowledge on the subject before they begin to read   Use their prior topical and linguistic knowledge as they read   Know their purpose for reading	Think of reading as decoding--one word at a time   Do not expect reading to make sense   Start reading without thinking about the topic, the language, or the structure of the text   Do not know why they are reading
During Reading
Give their complete attention to the reading task   Keep a constant check on their own understanding   Adjust their reading rate to match purpose and reading material   Monitor their reading comprehension and do it so often it becomes automatic   Can match their reading strategies to a variety of reading materials   Stop only to use a fix-up strategy when they do not understand	Do not know whether they understand or do not understand   Do not understand the concept of varying reading rates   Do not monitor their own comprehension   Seldom use any of the fix-up strategies
After Reading
Decide if they have achieved their goal for reading   Respond personally and critically to what they read   Evaluate their own comprehension of what was read   Summarize the major ideas   Seek additional information from outside sources	Do not know what they have read   Are unable to respond critically to what they have read, although they may have a limited personal response   Do not follow reading with comprehension self-check

(Adapted from Irvin, 1990, p. 29. Used with permission of Orange County Public Schools, Florida.)

Selection of Reading Materials

Students should experience a variety and balance of reading materials during the course of each grade. A variety of communication forms (literary, informational, and journalistic) serve as the means through which students learn about language, learn to use language, and learn through language.

Literature includes novels, short stories, poetry, and literary essays. It may also include a variety of prose forms such as diaries, journals, biographies, and autobiographies. Creative nonfiction is a term often used to describe such literary works. The study of literature goes beyond acquiring knowledge about literature. It also includes developing and strengthening creative and critical thinking skills and personal response. Through literature, students come to understand and appreciate the dynamic relationships that exist between reader, writer, and text.

Students should also read other forms of written communication such as newspapers, magazines, informational books and articles, and electronic information. All forms of communication serve as vehicles for language learning as well as means of exploring ideas about life and human nature. When students make connections between literature and life, they get a better understanding of themselves and gain deeper insights into the richness, complexity, and variety of human experiences, thoughts, and values. As well, studying literature results in readers and viewers becoming more proficient at writing sentences, using advanced vocabulary, and recognizing appropriate grammar, usage, spelling, and mechanics.

Literature and other forms of communication have the power to help students:

• broaden experience by encouraging creative, critical, and imaginative thinking, viewing, speaking, and writing
  
• transcend the barriers of time and place, and explore worlds that can exist only in the imagination
  
• recognize the timelessness of literary tradition and its relevance to their lives
  
• appreciate their own culture and the culture of others
  
• cultivate their personal and aesthetic awareness
  
• increase their awareness of the importance of form, and the uses and power of language
  
• gain insight into and understanding of the human condition
  
• enrich imaginative expression in their own speaking, writing, and representing
  
• increase their reading ability and capacity through increased interest and motivation
  
• become aware of and recognize multiple points of view
  
• build and enrich their vocabulary as they use, in their own speaking and writing, expressions and words encountered in literature
  
• develop the habit of reading for lifelong functional and leisure purposes
  
• solve problems independently and in collaboration with others
  
• expand their knowledge base
  
• cultivate analytical and critical thinking.

The Reading Process

Reading is an interactive-constructive process in which readers comprehend, interpret, and respond to text according to what they already know. Effective readers "have personal expectations about what they will get from a selection, and they bring those expectations to bear as they read by predicting and testing their predictions. They actively create meaning by constructing, or generating, relationships between what is within the text and what they already know" (Hennings, 1994, p. 456). See the diagram that follows.

An interactive-constructive model suggests that each student's interaction with a particular text differs and that each student constructs meanings that are uniquely personal.

Some researchers describe the reading act as a "transaction", in which meaning emerges from a continuing give-and-take relationship between the reader and the print on a page, each shaping and shaped by the other. The reciprocal interaction between readers and the text allows readers to construct their own meaning according to their background knowledge and experience.

In any reading transaction readers takes positions along the cognitive-affective continuum, depending upon their purposes. From the cognitive position, the reader's purpose is mainly to construct meaning that is to be remembered following the reading (e.g., actions to be performed, conclusions to be drawn, and concepts to be applied). From the affective position, the reader's purpose is mainly to experience personal feelings and ideas called to mind during reading. For example, if students are reading primarily for entertainment they will likely choose the affective position. On the other hand, if they are reading to understand how to construct an expository paragraph they will choose the cognitive position. However, cognitive and affective reading are not opposites; most reading consists of a combination of both.During the reading process meaning is constructed from text by:

• using reading strategies flexibly and independently--sampling, predicting and inferencing, and confirming and correcting
  
• selecting from the language cues--graphophonic, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic.

Proficient readers sample text, rather than focus on every detail. They make predictions and inferences and the meaning they make will be based upon the sampling, the reader's prior knowledge, and the specific context/situation. Readers then confirm or correct their predictions by further sampling the text, rereading if necessary, checking context, or reading ahead. Readers bring meaning to the text by using a developing and constantly adaptable set of expectations about what they will find as they read. As well, proficient readers access their knowledge of the language cueing systems to help them understand what they read.

An Interactive-constructive Model of Reading

In both the cognitive and affective positions, many factors affect the meaning that readers make of the text. Reading comprehension is influenced by the reader's world knowledge, linguistic knowledge, text structure knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge.

World Knowledge

Readers construct meaning before, during, and after a reading transaction depending upon their interest in and prior knowledge about the following:

• facts relative to the topic
  
• concepts and related vocabulary
  
• underlying principles and generalizations.

Readers have schemas, or organized networks of prior knowledge and experiences about topics, which create expectations when reading about those topics. When students are involved in a reading transaction, they add to or adjust their schemas and their schemas influence and aid their comprehension of what they read. Using their existing schemas, readers make predictions and inferences about what they read.

Linguistic Knowledge

The reader's knowledge of the way that language works (e.g., the position of words in a sentence, punctuation marks, and word relationships within sentences) contributes to successful comprehension of text. Through the use of context clues provided by the cueing systems--graphophonic, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic-- readers make sense of what they read.

Proficient readers are concerned with meaning first. They use the continuous formulation of meaning to determine how much attention needs to be given to the print in confirming or correcting predictions, and also in making further predictions. Middle Level students need to continue to develop a balanced use of the interacting language cueing systems to access meaning from text. As readers become proficient, they internalize the language cues and use them automatically to help them make sense of what they read.

When it is necessary for the teacher to review any of the language cueing systems, it is done most effectively in the context of what the student is reading and it will be achieved most appropriately on an individual basis.

Readers use graphophonic cues.

The correspondence of patterns of sounds (phonemes) to the patterns of letters (graphemes) at the word level is an important decoding tool for all readers. For example, when decoding the word apprehend, readers see nine letters and hear three phonemes--/ap/+/pre/+/hend/. By the Middle Level most students use these skills automatically.

• Readers use syntactic cues.

  The knowledge of word order rules used to make meaningful phrases and sentences--syntax--assists the comprehension process. Readers can predict the possible meaning of a word by determining its grammatical use in a sentence. In the following example, Middle Level readers may have difficulty with the word rambunctious.

  The rambunctious children raced around the yard nonstop.

  Most students will be aware that the word The precedes a noun or that it is a noun marker, and that the word children is a noun; therefore, as rambunctious describes the noun, children, it is likely an adjective. Students can then see that if the children raced around the yard, they must be full of energy. Thus, through the syntax, they will be able to arrive at a meaning for the unknown word.

   

• Readers use semantic cues.

  The meaning of the words surrounding the unknown word in the same or nearby sentences can help students determine if their interpretation of the unknown word makes sense in the sentence and in the text as a whole. In the following example, the phrase on his head is supplied by the writer to help students understand the meaning of the more unusual or difficult word beret.

  The man wore a beret on his head.

   

• Readers use pragmatic cues.

  Students' knowledge about the social appropriateness and conventions of language in particular contexts contributes to their understanding of what they read. For example, slang may be acceptable in casual dialogue (e.g., between characters in a story), but would not be used in formal contexts (e.g., magazine article).

  Text Structure Knowledge

  The readers' knowledge about text patterns and the structure of various genres, and their abilities to use such structural understandings and elements effectively, contributes to the construction of meaning. For instance, a poem may rhyme or have a repeating pattern; an expository passage develops logically; a short story or novel includes such elements as setting and characters; headings indicate major sections of text; and summaries review main points. When students are aware of the structure of text, they will understand better what they read and remember it for a longer time period. Readers use their knowledge of text structure to differentiate between narrative and expository reading materials, and they adapt their reading strategies accordingly. As well, when students recognize paragraph patterns (e.g., simple listing, cause and effect, contrast and compare, time order) and the signal words within the paragraphs (e.g., for example, in particular, however, but, on the other hand, in addition, secondly), they develop a sense of text organization that helps them to make meaning of what they read.

  Metacognitive Knowledge

  Metacognitive knowledge refers to the readers' awareness of how they make meaning and how they knowingly monitor their own understanding as they read. Effective readers use a variety of comprehension strategies as they read; they often raise and answer questions in their minds by visualizing, predicting, and summarizing to themselves and rereading as necessary. Metacognitive readers recognize when something does not make sense and they take appropriate action to do something about it. Examining their own thinking allows readers to understand how they arrived at a particular meaning and offers them the option of revising their understanding.

  Reading Rates

  The ability to recognize when to read faster or slower is one skill of a proficient reader. Individuals adapt their reading rate depending upon their prior knowledge of the topic and language used, the text structure, and their purpose for reading. Teachers can help students recognize the need for adapting their reading rates according to their purpose by:

  • sharing the information in the chart that follows with students as needed so that they become aware of the various rates and can practise matching their reading abilities and purposes with their reading rates
    
  • posting an enlarged version of the chart for student reference
    
  • modelling the various rates for students by demonstrating with the types of materials and purposes that require different rates
    
  • encouraging students to add this knowledge to their repertoire of metacognitive abilities.

   

  Reading Rate	Use this rate when:
  Skimming (readers conduct a quick overview to get the overall gist of text)	trying to get the overall general content of the material   determining if more careful reading is necessary
  Scanning (readers glance over text in search of a specific detail)	searching for a single piece of specific information (e.g., date, name, term)
  Rapid	reading for entertainment or enjoyment (e.g., light, fast-moving fiction)
  Slow and Careful (readers wish to get an in-depth understanding of a passage or text)	reading material that contains difficult or unfamiliar concepts and vocabulary (e.g., technical material that requires thorough examination and reflection)   reading to retain detail (e.g., summarizing, studying)   reading to judge or evaluate ideas (e.g., issues article, novel study)

   

  Supporting and Managing the Reading Process

  The reading program consists of both guided reading and independent reading experiences. Open-ended activities and questions during guided reading encourage diverse responses, critical and creative thinking, discussion, and skill development. Guided reading experiences also serve as springboards for student writing. During independent reading students are encouraged to use the abilities and knowledge they have acquired in their guided reading experiences.

  Guided reading experiences should be structured using pre-reading, reading, and/or post-reading as a means of motivating students, and helping them to develop their metacognitive abilities and connect what they read with their own lives. Guided reading encourages student response and reflection throughout each reading experience. The use of structured experiences will vary, depending upon student needs and the reading selection; however, it is seldom appropriate to engage in pre-reading, reading, and post-reading activities for every selection.

  Guided reading instruction engages students in:

  • Pre-reading: Setting the stage for understanding and response

     

  • Reading: Engaging in text

     

  • Post-reading: Making connections and extending understanding

     

  • Assessing and evaluating: Occurring throughout and continuously.

  Pre-reading: Setting the Stage for Understanding and Response

  Pre-reading experiences introduce the reading selection and develop a framework for reading. They build and activate students' relevant prior knowledge about the topic, concepts, issues, and vocabulary contained in the text to be read. Through the use of pre-reading activities, teachers can determine the amount of background information that students have, and the amount that must be provided by the teacher or researched by the student. Pre-reading experiences encourage students to review their own beliefs, make personal responses, and enhance their understanding and appreciation of events and issues in the book. Teachers can model pre-reading strategies and guide students through the processes that will prepare them for independent understanding of their reading material. The following points describe the main purposes of pre-reading activities.

  To spark interest and motivate students to read:

  Young adolescents' preoccupation with social concerns, physical changes, and personal needs influence their level of motivation. Through involvement in structured pre-reading activities, students discover interests in topics or issues in text to be read and tend to be more willing readers.

  To assess, build, or activate students' prior topical and linguistic knowledge:

  The time to familiarize students with key concepts and essential or new vocabulary is before reading. Through pre-reading activities, teachers can assess the background knowledge and experience of the students regarding the topic, issues, concepts, and vocabulary contained in the text. If necessary, the teacher can provide experiences which build the students' background knowledge prior to reading the text.

  To set purposes for reading:

  Students who are aware that reading is done for a variety of purposes, and who learn to set their own purposes for reading, have a greater chance of reading effectively. It is important to encourage students to read with their purposes in mind and to be aware that they may find, in the text, values and ideas beyond their original purposes. Some purposes for reading include:

  • to respond
    
  • to explore ideas
    
  • to get information
    
  • to clarify thinking
    
  • to extend thinking
    
  • to enjoy and appreciate.

  Pre-reading Activities

  The following are examples of pre-reading activities that may be used as they are or adapted to fulfil the needs and interests of particular students. Using these scaffolds, teachers will be able to devise other useful and interesting pre-reading experiences.

• Anticipation Guides

  An anticipation guide prepares students to interact in meaningful ways with the selection they will read. The following steps may be used to develop anticipation guides:

  • Identify major concepts, themes, issues, or events in the reading selection.
    
  • Write three to five statements related to selected concepts, themes, issues, or events that are likely to encourage thought and discussion.
    
  • Present the statements to the students on an overhead projector or the chalkboard, or as a handout.
    
  • Allow a few minutes for students to respond individually to each statement by indicating their agreement or disagreement.
    
  • Engage students in a discussion about the statements and their reactions, asking them to give reasons for their responses.

  An example of an anticipation guide follows.

  Title: Missing May
  Author: Cynthia Rylant
  Grade Level: 6-7
  Summary: Summer is a grade 7 girl who has been adopted by an older couple, May and Ob. After the death of May, a very unusual three-way friendship develops between Cletus, a neighbouring boy also in 7th grade, Ob, and Summer. This curious friendship eventually helps both Ob and Summer deal successfully with May's death and provides them with the ability to view their future from a different perspective.

  Sample Anticipation Guide

  Please indicate whether you agree or disagree, and provide a reason for your response.

  Agree	Disagree	Statement
  X		Foster children often experience unhappiness because they frequently move from home to home. Reason: I think they would feel like they didn't belong anywhere.
  		"Old" people are not suitable friends for teenagers. Reason:
  		It is difficult to keep living a normal life after losing someone you love. Reason:

• Opinionnaires

  Opinionnaires provide opportunities for students to examine their own thoughts about issues or topics they will encounter in the reading selection. An example of an opinionnaire follows.

  Title: The Haymeadow
  Author: Gary Paulsen
  Grade Level: 8-9
  Summary: Following in the footsteps of his father and grandfather, 14 year-old John Barron has been sent to an isolated haymeadow to spend the summer caring for the family's sheep. With only his faithful dogs and horse for company, John struggles against loneliness and fear of failure. His efforts in the face of floods, snake bites, and hungry coyotes make his stay in the meadow a maturing experience. John begins to recognize his own resourcefulness and courage, and when his father arrives, he realizes that his father is proud of his strengths and ability to survive hardships.

  Sample Opinionnaire

  Following is a list of human characteristics, some of which you might consider strengths, others you might consider weaknesses. Put an "S" for the characteristics you consider strengths; put a "W" for the characteristics you consider weaknesses; put "SW" for those you consider to be both strengths and weaknesses. Leave blank any items you consider neither strengths or weaknesses. State reasons for your choices.

  Characteristic	Reason
  ___ curious
  ___ stubborn
  ___ independent
  ___ cautious
  ___ selfish
  ___ honest
  ___ emotional
  ___ inexperienced

  Choose one of the characteristics you identified as a weakness and describe a situation in which that weakness might be a strength. Or, choose one of the characteristics you identified as a strength and describe a situation in which that strength might be a weakness.

• Teacher-presented Narratives

  One strategy that introduces students to concepts or themes in the reading selection is the teacher-presented narrative. This narrative enables the students to become acquainted with the primary concepts or themes and with the relevant vocabulary. Through teacher guidance, students will discuss pre-reading questions, tap background knowledge, and set a purpose for reading. The following steps may be used to develop teacher-presented narratives:

  • Create a narrative (about 300 words) that relates the text selection to the students' background knowledge. The narrative should include major concepts, themes, and essential or new vocabulary, and should encourage thought-provoking discussion.
    
  • Present the narrative in an enthusiastic manner in order to motivate student interest in the selection.
    
  • Engage students in discussion. Encourage them to ask questions, gain vocabulary knowledge, and share related background experiences. Most importantly, they should begin to internalize the main concepts and themes as they connect the narrative, and subsequently the reading selection, with their own lives.
    
  • Have students read the selection, or read it aloud to them, with their newly developed interest and purpose.

  An example of a teacher-presented narrative follows.

  Title: Enchanted Alley
  Author: Michael Anthony
  Source: Galaxies II
  Grade Level: 7-8

  Sample Teacher-presented Narrative

  What does it mean when we say something is "enchanted" or "enchanting"? What might something look like or be like if it were described as being enchanted? Different people find different places enchanting; these places fascinate them or seem magical to them for some reason. For example, a deep, dark forest, a sunlit meadow, or a beautifully structured building are enchanting to some people, depending upon their associations with these places. Are there places that you consider to be enchanting? What makes them seem that way to you? Sometimes children have forts or treehouses that they believe are enchanted. They use their imagination to create the mystery and magic that they associate with those places. Have you recently walked down any alleys where you live? What did you see? Would you consider them to be enchanting? Why or why not? Is it possible that alleys anywhere in the world could be described as enchanting? Read the short story "Enchanted Alley" to discover what it is about a particular alley in a city of Trinidad that so enchants the narrator. As you read, consider if you are also enchanted by the alley and by the techniques the author uses to enchant the reader.

• Graphic Organizers

  As a means of helping students build a schema before reading, have them generate lists of ideas and words related to the key concept. Then organize these ideas graphically to provide a visual construct of ideas. These graphic organizers provide structured overviews which activate and build knowledge prior to reading, and help students make connections among ideas. Some kinds of graphic organizers are semantic maps and Venn diagrams.

  Semantic Maps: These categorize ideas and concepts, and visually illustrate the relationships between the ideas and concepts. Semantic mapping may involve the entire class, small groups, or individual students. The following steps may be used to develop semantic maps:

  • Identify a key term or concept in the reading selection that students are required to examine in greater depth.
    
  • Write the key term or concept on the chalkboard or an overhead transparency, or on a handout.
    
  • Discuss the term or concept briefly or use pictures and other experiences related to the word to generate discussion.
    
  • Ask students to suggest or record words, phrases, and ideas that relate to the term.
    
  • Have students share their word associations and guide the categorizing and mapping of the ideas by recording them on the chalkboard or overhead projector.
    
  • Discuss the semantic map and encourage students to add to it during and after reading.

  Through the mapping and the discussion, the students become aware of what they know. Their interest is piqued in preparation for reading the selection. The process of constructing the map is as valuable as the completed map.

  An example of a semantic map activity follows.

  Title: Absolutely Invincible
  Author: William Bell
  Grade Level: 7-9
  Summary: Four friends form a club to support each other and find ways to cope with their disabilities. Each encounters unique challenges, but a camping trip to a wilderness area of Algonquin Park presents challenges they must cope with as a group and cements their friendship.

  Sample Semantic Map

  Create a semantic map that identifies four types of challenges faced by the group of friends, and list some specific challenges in each category.

  

  Venn Diagrams: These present a visual display of similarities between two topics or ideas, and allow students to see the differences. The section of the diagram that overlaps represents the ways in which the two are alike.

  Constructing Venn diagrams can be a whole class or small group activity. The following steps may be used to develop a Venn diagram:

  • Identify the key terms or concepts to be compared in the selection.
    
  • Write the terms in the appropriate sections of the Venn diagram on the chalkboard or an overhead transparency and discuss.
    
  • Record student-suggested words, phrases, and ideas in the appropriate sections with commonalities listed in the area of overlap.
    
  • Discuss students' ideas and understandings; then have students read the selection or read it aloud to them.
    
  • Encourage students to add ideas to the diagram during and after reading.

  Through the Venn diagram, students activate prior knowledge and build schemas that will enhance their understanding of the reading selection. See page 264 in this curriculum guide for an example.

  Teach New or Specialized Vocabulary

  Middle Level students are continually adding new words to their vocabulary. When vocabulary is unfamiliar to students and is essential for the comprehension of a reading selection, it is helpful to introduce it prior to reading the selection. As teachers encourage and foster vocabulary growth, students will acquire a larger functional and conceptual vocabulary.

  It is important that only one or two vocabulary activities be used at a time and these should be chosen according to the demands of the reading selection, as well as according to students' needs and abilities. Some instructional activities to help students develop vocabulary include the following:

  • have students locate the word in a dictionary
    
  • have students write a sentence which includes the word and appropriately reflects its meaning
    
  • have students learn and associate word roots and affixes with single meanings (e.g., the prefix re means again)
    
  • give students a simple definition (e.g., the word pungent means a sharp odour)
    
  • show students a picture of an object or present the object itself
    
  • suggest synonyms (e.g., lucid means clear)
    
  • suggest antonyms (e.g., opposites of luminous are dark or dull)
    
  • classify words (e.g., luminous is an adjective)
    
  • make analogies (e.g., herd is to cows as flock is to sheep)
    
  • use pictures, charts, graphs, or other visuals
    
  • demonstrate (e.g., act out the word lunging by making sudden forward thrusts)
    
  • provide real and direct experiences (e.g., visit a pond to discover what algae looks like)
    
  • engage students in a simulated experience (e.g., conduct a mock trial to discover the meaning of testimony)
    
  • use audiovisual aids (e.g., a filmstrip or video demonstrating osmosis)
    
  • discuss word connotations (e.g., black connotes death; green connotes growth or envy)
    
  • study changes in word meaning over time
    
  • have students map out a word's various meanings and associations.

  Prior to reading a particular selection, the teacher may suggest one or two new or essential vocabulary words for students to record. In addition, individual students may collect and record their own vocabulary words during and after reading. In this way, both the teacher and the students can determine relevant words to add to the students' repertoire.

  One way to encourage students to keep track of their expanding vocabulary is to have them record the identified words on index cards, which can then be filed alphabetically and referred to as needed. Teachers may wish to have students also write on the cards definitions of the words, sentences using the words appropriately, or sources of the words.

  Another means of recording new vocabulary words is on a Vocabulary Log, such as the one shown on the following page. This log allows for some teacher guidance in vocabulary study and also provides for individual student vocabulary growth. Teachers can observe student vocabulary growth by creating checklists to record the appropriateness and frequency of new word use.

  During Reading: Engaging in Text

  During reading activities focus on the effective use of language and on promoting comprehension of language and ideas, and support readers as they interact with text to construct meaning. Encouraging students to reflect as they read on the writer's ideas and craft promotes thoughtful personal response and enhances the transaction between the student and the text. Opportunities should be provided for each student to respond and to experience success. The following points describe the main purposes of during reading activities:

  To foster students' comprehension of text and ideas:

  Students become more proficient readers when they are aware of the goal of the reading experience; when they are aware of what they know about the topic; and when they are aware of strategies they can use to enhance their comprehension.

  To focus students' attention on such things as organizational patterns, themes, issues, or characters:

  When students are made aware of text structures and organizational patterns, it is possible for them to read with greater understanding, as well as to transfer this knowledge to their own writing. By drawing attention to specific themes, issues, or characters, teachers help students to focus their reactions and responses.

  To direct student attention to effective uses of language and language techniques (e.g., sentence structure, figurative language):

  When students are made aware of effective and specialized language use and techniques in the context of what they are reading, they will more readily grasp the nature of language, will more likely understand what they read, and will transfer writing techniques and ideas to their own writing.

  To encourage students' reactions and personal responses to ideas and the writer's craft:

  Prompting students' personal reactions and responses helps them to make connections between the reading material and their own lives. It is important that, as students identify what they find most meaningful in the reading material, response be encouraged and valued.

  During Reading Activities

  The following are examples of activities that can support students' reading experiences. Teachers should use and adapt these according to students' needs and interests.

• Character Map/Sociogram

  Character maps, sometimes referred to as sociograms, help students identify traits of particular characters in a selection and recognize the relationship between those characters. An example of a character map follows. The following steps may be used to develop character maps:

   

• after reading a portion of the selection, identify at least two main characters for analysis
  
• list character traits beneath each character's name, enclosing these in a box or circle
  
• draw arrows from one character to another, writing phrases above and below the arrows to describe the characters' relationship to each other.

  An example of a character map is shown below.

  Title: Journey to Jo'burg
  Author: Beverley Naidoo
  Grade Level: 6-7
  Summary: Baby Dineo is very ill with a high fever. Dineo's sister and brother, Naledi and Tiro, travel 250 kilometres by foot and truck to Johannesburg to find their mother so that Dineo can be taken to the hospital.

  Sample Character Map/Sociogram
  (during chapter one of the novel)

  

• Partner (Dialogue) Journals

  Partner journals provide for student interaction. Students respond to a reading selection at various points during their reading and share these responses with a partner, keeping up a written dialogue. This activity encourages reflection, extends thinking about the reading selection, and promotes student interaction. Students may be reading the same or different selections. The following steps may be used for partner journals:

   

• Have students record reactions to a particular reading selection or passage (the teacher may prompt students when to stop reading or allow students to choose their own stopping points).
  
• Ask students to exchange journals with a reading partner for a response to their ideas and reactions.

  An example of a partner journal follows.

  Title: A Friend Like Zilla
  Author: Rachna Gilmore
  Grade Level: 6-8
  Summary: This is the story of two girls, Nobby and Zilla, who develop a special friendship.

  Sample Partner Journal

  Dear Journal Partner,

  I've just finished reading chapter 5 of the book and I think it's very interesting the way the author is teaching Nobby how not all people have to be the same. I think that even though Zilla has a learning disability she knows a lot that Nobby doesn't know about things like berry picking and cooking. And one thing Zilla seems especially to know is how to be a friend.
  Your Partner

  Dear Partner,

  Yes, I think it's interesting too, and I like the way Nobby describes how she and Zilla fit together "like puzzle bits". I'm glad that they are becoming friends because at first it did not seem that Nobby wanted anything to do with Zilla because she was so much older and a teenager. But, she seems to have changed her mind about Zilla now that they have spent some time together. I wonder if Nobby is going to have problems with her Uncle Chad? She doesn't seem to like him. I wonder how her uncle will like Zilla? I don't think he will because he seems to want things to be perfect and Zilla is not.
  Your Partner

• Feelings Analysis Chart

  Analyzing story characters' feelings assists students in relating to a selection on a social and personal level. The following steps may be used to develop a feelings analysis chart:

   

• Have students stop reading briefly and write about what is happening in the story.
  
• Ask students to decide: How does the character feel at the end? How do I feel?
  
• Repeat the procedure for other events in the story.

• Prediction Points

  As students internalize the events of a story, they can begin to make predictions about what will happen next. Asking students to stop at various points during reading to make predictions about upcoming events and issues encourages them to become intuitive readers. The following steps may be used to encourage students to make predictions:

   

• Have students stop reading at critical points and predict what may happen next to a certain character, or what may happen as the result of a certain turn of events. As students internalize the process, the teacher can have students choose their own prediction stopping points.
  
• Ask students to explain briefly their predictions.
  
• Have students provide story clues (e.g., direct quotes) and page numbers to support their predictions.

  Post-reading: Making Connections and Extending Understanding

  When students reflect on and respond to the literature they read, they experience thoughtful interaction with text and they build schemas which assist in future reading comprehension. The post-reading activities that a teacher chooses for students will affect their perceptions of their reading selections and processes. Teachers can encourage students to view reading as a meaning-making process by asking them to reflect, share responses, return to the selection to develop greater understanding, make connections between what they have just learned and what they already know, and use what was learned to extend their understanding. Being able to apply what is learned to new situations enables students to gain further insights and to put new understanding into perspective. The following points describe the main purposes of post-reading activities.

  To encourage reflection on ideas, themes, issues, concepts, and the writer's craft as encountered in the text:

  Reflection on the writer's craft provides springboards for the students' own writing. Reflection on and response to the ideas, themes, issues, and concepts allows students to make connections between their own lives and the literature that they read. These connections help students build and revise schemas, and lead to further understanding of other literature, themselves, and the world.

  To engage students in analysis, synthesis, organization, and expression of ideas:

  Students who engage in response to literature by discussing or writing are actively involved in constructing their own meanings, which leads to development of critical thinking skills (e.g., analysis, synthesis, and evaluation).

  To clarify and extend comprehension:

  Through rereading and rethinking activities, students experience further exploration of the text. Through discussion or writing activities, meaning becomes more evident and understandable to readers.

  To examine relationships between prior knowledge and experience, and new ideas and information:

  Activities that help students to make connections between the literature and their own lives lead them to build and revise their linguistic and topical schemas.

  Sample Vocabulary Log

   

  Responding to Reading

  Reader response activities encourage students to clarify and extend their thinking about what they read. Readers construct individual and personal meanings in light of their backgrounds, experiences, prior knowledge of the topic, and the language of the reading material. As well, readers' responses will depend upon their purposes for reading, and upon the social and cultural contexts in which the reading occurs.

  When opportunities are provided for students to respond, they begin to make sense of what they read and make connections between what they read and their own life experiences. Through reader response activities, students get a sense of how a particular reading selection affects and changes their lives.

  Teachers can encourage Middle Level students to respond to what they read by offering them a variety of means of expressing their understanding. Students should be allowed to choose their means of expression some of the time. They need opportunities to talk, draw, write, construct, or dramatize in response to what they read. It is important for them to have the freedom to respond in the way that they believe is most appropriate to what they are reading. However, students need to learn about the various response possibilities so that they have a repertoire from which to choose. Developmental stages of reader response are shown on the chart on the following page.

  Throughout the school year, teachers should model a variety of ways of responding while reading aloud to the class. Teachers should also respond in a variety of ways to their own personal reading selections. The following steps may be used to initiate reader response:

  • Set goals, with the students if possible, for the minimum number and types of responses required each week, but encourage students to respond as frequently as they wish.
    
  • Explain to the students how often they can expect to have their journals read and responded to by the teacher.
    
  • Encourage students to respond personally and genuinely in such ways as:
    • writing down a quote and responding to it
      
    • writing down their questions and wonderings as they read
      
    • writing down predictions about what might happen to characters or incidents that might occur, and explaining why they think that
      
    • writing their reactions to an incident or the actions of a character(s)
      
    • commenting on the writer's craft (e.g., how the author captured interest, created images, created suspense, developed believable characters).
  • Model a variety of response formats for students.
    
  • When introducing reading response journals, teachers may give each student a letter, such as the one that follows, to attach to the first page of his/her journals.

  Dear (student's name)

  This is your Reading Response Journal! It is the place where you and I can talk about books, authors, reading, and writing. We will chat in writing about the books, stories, and poetry that we read and our letters will stay in this notebook, as a record of all the reading and thinking we did about literature this year.

  In your letters, tell me about what you have read. Tell me about more than the plot or the facts. Tell me what you thought and felt as you were reading. Tell me what you liked and did not like, and what made sense and what did not, and why. Tell me how what you have read connects with what you already know or have heard. Ask questions. I will do the same.

  Be sure to date each letter and to state the title and author of the selection to which you are responding. You must write at least twice each week, but you may write more often if you wish. I will write back to you once each week. This collection of letters will provide _____% of your mark each term.

  I am looking forward to your letters!

  Your teacher,

  Developmental Stages of Reader Response

   

  Developmental Stage	Characteristics of Each Stage Students in this stage:	Level of Questions to which Readers in Each Stage Respond
  Stage 1 unconscious enjoyment of imaginary entry into what they read	are uncritical, subjective readers   relate to what they read, but can not say why they like it or dislike it   respond to literal factual questions	What happened?   To whom did it happen?   When did it happen?   What is the sequence of events?
  Stage 2 self-conscious appreciation or perception of text purpose and meaning	begin to become objective about the work and their responses to it   compare their own knowledge, experiences, and values to the work being read   begin to read between the lines and describe their evaluative responses	Why did the events occur as they did?   How are you like the main character? How are you different?   Why do you think the author wrote this?
  Stage 3 conscious appreciation and perception of text unity, purpose, and ideas	choose their own reading material with increasing insight and discretion   respond with pleasure to an increasing range and variety of text   examine critically and reflect on their own response after reading	What is the significance of this section/selection in terms of what we are studying or have studied?   What is distinctive about the author's style/craft?   How does the setting contribute to the overall effect of the work?   Do you agree with the author? Why or why not?

  These stages are not necessarily linear and are most likely to be recursive in nature. Students will move into and out of these stages at different rates, depending upon the type of reading material and their reading experiences.

  (Based on Early, 1960.)

  Dialogue Journals

  Dialogue Journals are interactive written conversations between students and teachers or peers. The participants share their responses and observations, collaboratively negotiating and clarifying meaning as they extend and elaborate on the initial entry. Middle Level students benefit from socializing with their peers, learning about others' personal thoughts and opinions, and sharing their own.

  Students gain a sense of ownership when they are able to make choices about what they read, and when they are encouraged to respond in ways that are appropriate for them as individuals. The students and the teacher, through reader response, have opportunities to use language in order to share ideas and opinions with each other. When students have authentic audiences, they are more likely to see the point of the task beyond pleasing the teacher.

  Request that students acquire a notebook in which to write responses regularly and in which to record ideas for other types of responses. The collection of each student's entries remains together in his/her notebook for future reference and further discussion. The entries provide evidence of the students' growth as interpretive and critical readers and thinkers.

  Split-page Journals: Extending Reader Response

  It is important to help students move their responses beyond an initial, personal reaction toward a more reflective, critical response. One way to do this is to have them create a split-page journal by drawing a line down the middle of each page, making two columns. Have them entitle the left-hand column First Impressions and explain that this column is for initial, personal responses to what they read (their first thoughts and feelings). Then have them entitle the right-hand column Second Thoughts and explain that this column is used following discussion or reflection about what they read and about their first impressions. Second thoughts are usually more interpretive, critical, or evaluative because students have had the opportunity to rethink or discuss their initial reactions. Encourage them to make connections between their own and others' ideas as well.

  Teachers can provide scaffolds that move students beyond first impressions to more critical thought by providing open-ended thinking prompts (e.g., Think about Nobby's reaction to Zilla when they first meet as compared to her reactions when Uncle Chad arrives), rather than questions that may appear to have right or wrong answers (e.g., What was Nobby's reactions to Zilla after Uncle Chad arrives?). "Think about ..." statements move students beyond retelling what they have read and encourage them to be critical thinkers.

  Using self-monitoring record sheets such as the one on the following page encourages students to respond in a variety of ways. Teachers may adapt these record sheets to include other methods of response.

  Reading Logs and Reading Conferences

  A briefer means of responding to reading is the use of Reading Logs. Encourage students to keep a record of all of their reading selections, both guided and independent. A Reading Log is valuable because it shows what students are reading and how long it takes them to read each selection. Reading Log comments help teachers to determine if students are practising what they learn during guided reading time and may draw attention to areas of need. Comments also indicate students' reading preferences.

  Teachers may find the students' Reading Logs useful as a starting point for Reading Conferences. During Reading Conferences, teachers can inquire about students' reading preferences and suggest other titles of a similar nature or that are more challenging. During the reading conference students become involved in self-assessment and set new goals for themselves. Teachers may simply record comments directly beneath those made by the student in the Reading Log. This record of student reading can become part of the student's assessment portfolio. A Sample Student Reading Log is included in the following pages.

  Reading Aloud

  Reading aloud to students provides opportunities for teachers to:

  • demonstrate that reading is important
    
  • provide enjoyment (for both teacher and students)
    
  • motivate students to read on their own by creating a love for books and reading in general
    
  • introduce students to quality literature
    
  • increase students' awareness of issues and ideas in the world around them
    
  • establish a community of readers by sharing thoughts and feelings about a variety of topics, authors, and selections
    
  • introduce students to literature, authors, and topics they may not otherwise enjoy or experience on their own
    
  • demonstrate ways that readers can make connections, using their own experiences, to become more reflective and critical thinkers
    
  • give students perspectives from which to evaluate books that they choose on their own
    
  • improve student comprehension by modelling a variety of comprehension strategies and increasing their information about the world (expanding their schemas)
    
  • provide opportunities for students to develop listening abilities
    
  • expand students' vocabulary
    
  • enhance understanding of narrative and other written structures
    
  • reveal the differences between oral and written language
    
  • affect student writing by exposing them to a wide variety of literary styles and forms of writing
    
  • present various ideas, purposes, and structures students might use for their own writing
    
  • model fluent and effective spoken English.

  Students as well as the teacher should be given opportunities to read aloud. However, because Middle Level students are often self-conscious about how they appear to their peers, it is important that they be allowed time to prepare prior to reading to the whole class. They can prepare by reading the selection silently or aloud to themselves, aloud to a friend, or aloud to the teacher. Teachers should model the read-aloud strategies (e.g., expression, logical phrasing) before expecting students to read aloud. Reading aloud within familiar groups or with a close friend is less threatening and may be the place where impromptu read-alouds take place.

  Reading aloud by students provides students with opportunities to:

  • entertain and share information and favourite selections with their peers
    
  • demonstrate that they value reading
    
  • practise and improve reading and speaking abilities (e.g., logical pauses, volume, enunciation).

  Selection of appropriate material is crucial to the read-aloud program. Knowing the students' interests and what they have already read helps the teacher choose effective reading material. It is also very important that teachers read the books with which they themselves are familiar and which they enjoy because listeners will be captivated by the teacher's enthusiasm for the material. Select read-aloud materials that introduce, enhance, and complement units of study, and those that are relevant to the lives of the students at the moment. It is also important to read a variety of written forms. Some suggestions for kinds of material to read include the following:

  • fiction - short stories, novels
    
  • poetry
    
  • nonfiction - newspaper/magazine articles, editorials, creative nonfiction, biographies, autobiographies
    
  • anecdotes
    
  • jokes and riddles
    
  • letters - business, friendly, to the editor
    
  • reviews of movies, books, television programs, plays
    
  • picture books
    
  • myths and legends
    
  • tall tales
    
  • fables and fairytales.

  Independent Reading

  While much of students' reading will consist of guided reading experiences, it is important that students have independent reading time in which to practise what they learn during guided reading experiences. Independent reading time provides opportunities for students and the teacher to engage in sustained silent reading, which develops their reading abilities and provides enjoyment.

  During independent reading time, students select their own reading material. They may choose from the library or classroom collection, bring a selection from home, or continue reading the book being read during guided reading. Students should be encouraged to read a variety of genres. For example, readers who tend to read only magazines can be introduced to short stories and novels through student and teacher Book Talks.

  Every student in the classroom should be expected to read silently and independently during the designated time. This may be the time for teachers to demonstrate their own commitment to recreational reading. When teachers participate in sustained silent reading they demonstrate that they value reading for pleasure. Teachers can read adult books and articles or they may choose to catch up on some of the literature that the students are reading. By recommending the books they themselves enjoy, teachers often motivate students to read a greater variety of genres and authors.

  Book Talks

  During Book Talks, readers present the books they have read and describe their responses to these books. Book Talks may be given by students as well as teachers and other adults (e.g., resource centre personnel, other teachers, administrators, parents, and other community members). A reader's enthusiasm about a particular book will be communicated by tone of voice and nonverbal expression, as much as by what he or she says about the book. Book Talks by students may be scheduled for specific days and times or they may occur informally and voluntarily, and may be given in pairs, small groups, or large groups. In some classrooms, students and teachers give short Book Talks prior to sustained silent reading sessions.

  Purposes of Book Talks include the following:

  • to focus attention on enjoyable and informative reading experiences
    
  • to provide opportunity for students to share responses to a book and exchange ideas with peers
    
  • to entice students to read peer-recommended selections
    
  • to develop students' skills of reflection, discussion, and evaluation
    
  • to provide opportunities for students' understanding of their reading to be extended through talk
    
  • to recognize that authors use language in unique ways
    
  • to encourage readers' individual preferences for kinds of materials, authors' styles, and genres
    
  • to recognize that there are recurring themes and topics in literature that help make sense of our lives and the world around us.

  Some guidelines for Book Talks follow:

  • Teachers can model this strategy before asking students to talk about books they are reading.
    
  • Teachers should model the procedure enthusiastically, demonstrating the rewards of reading.
    
  • It is important to share fiction and nonfiction selections.
    
  • It is important for teachers to discuss books that they have begun but never finished reading. Students should be aware that all readers do this occasionally for a variety of reasons. Discuss these reasons with students.
    
  • Encourage students to justify their choices of reading materials and to support their evaluations.
    
  • Display the books discussed to entice other students to read them.
    
  • Encourage students to share the following kinds of information and insights about their books:
    • reason(s) the book was chosen
      
    • something about the author
      
    • who might enjoy the book
      
    • reason(s) for thinking that the book is worth reading
      
    • general theme of the book
      
    • a particularly interesting part and why it is interesting
      
    • use of effective or unique language
      
    • some personal or world knowledge gained from reading.
  • Encourage students to summarize briefly their books for peers.
    
  • Some students may choose to say little about the book, but may want to read aloud some passages that peers will enjoy.
    
  • Encourage listeners to ask questions about the books or the authors.
    
  • Sharing sessions should be brief. The student's goal is to interest others in the book by giving a short summary, and by expressing personal and critical responses to the book, not by retelling the entire story. Most often, three to five minutes per book will be sufficient for each Book Talk.
    
  • Students who are reluctant to discuss reading materials with peers because of nervousness or embarrassment may, at first, write their comments in Reading Logs, then read those entries aloud. This method provides a scaffold for students and soon they should feel more comfortable about sharing informally, without having to read their responses.
    
  • Use checklists and anecdotal notes to record students' interest in reading and their preference of genres and topics.
    
  • Schedule reading conferences with students who do not voluntarily participate in Book Talks. They may be interested in reading but may not feel comfortable discussing their reading materials with peers. Encourage them to discuss their books with you first; this gives them practice sharing their ideas and helps them to overcome nervousness or embarrassment when talking to others.
    
  • Students can excite younger readers about reading by talking about books to other classes.
    
  • Teachers and teacher-librarians could use this strategy to introduce theme-related selections.
    
  • Students and teachers could review books for specific content such as stereotyping, bias, and character development.
    
  • Films, videos, and newspaper and magazine articles could also be the subjects of Book Talks.

  Paper Bag Book Talk

  A procedure for Paper Bag Book Talks follows.

  • Students decorate a paper bag with representations of ideas and topics from the book to be discussed.
    
  • Inside the bag, the students place the book and a variety of objects that reflect the ideas in the book and their understanding of and responses to the ideas.
    
  • During the Book Talk students first explain the ideas reflected by the decorated bag.
    
  • Following that, they select one item at a time out of the bag and talk about it in relation to the story, making clear how it represents their responses to the book.
    
  • Teachers can model this technique for students prior to asking them to do one. Remind students not to give away everything about the book; leave some things for other readers to discover.

  Literature Circles

  Literature Circles are small discussion groups in which three to five students who are reading the same selection collaborate to construct meaning from what they read and their responses to the reading material. Group members extend their understanding of what they read by exchanging perceptions and interpretations, and by asking questions about the selection and about their own and others' responses. Literature Circles are often structured around novels with common themes or authors, but other genres and forms of communication may be used.

  Because Literature Circles consist of students who have chosen the same reading selection, they are heterogeneous groups based on common interest. The groups will change each time students make new reading selections, providing students with opportunities to work with a variety of peers.

  Each group meets regularly and sets its own goals for how much to read prior to each meeting, the topics for discussion, and the role each individual will take in the group discussion. Upon completion of their reading selections, groups conclude with a presentation or activity through which they share with the entire class what they have learned. Culminating presentations may be visual, oral, dramatic, written, or a combination of all four. Initially, the teacher may assign or suggest culminating activities, but students should be encouraged to be creative so that eventually they can decide how to celebrate and share their Literature Circle experiences.

  The teacher's role is that of facilitator, as he or she provides support in the form of models and instruction. By circulating among the groups and observing, teachers can determine the instruction required and build scaffolds for individuals and groups, as needed. Using checklists or anecdotal notes, teachers also record assessment information and monitor student progress.

  Purposes of Literature Circles include the following:

  • promote personal and critical response to literature and other forms of communication
    
  • to promote thoughtful discussion which affirms, challenges, and extends each reader's understanding of the text and of himself/herself
    
  • to extend students' respect for individual differences, perspectives, and choices
    
  • to encourage students to collaborate in order to make meaning from what they read
    
  • to encourage acceptance of varied personal responses and understanding
    
  • to demonstrate that all students have the right to their interpretations and opinions
    
  • to extend reading abilities and comprehension through the social act of discussion
    
  • to extend students' knowledge of language structures, vocabulary, a variety of genres, and ideas, as well as authors' techniques.

  The teacher's role is to:

  • identify a number of selections that have a common theme, author, or genre and provide multiple copies of each
    
  • present brief Book Talks about each selection
    
  • guide students in choosing selections that match their reading abilities and interests
    
  • model and instruct students in strategies for reading and discussing what they read
    
  • facilitate discussion by providing scaffolds (e.g., role information sheets) to assist students as they learn how to function successfully in literature discussion groups
    
  • observe individuals and groups and keep assessment records.

    The student's role is to:

     

  • choose the reading selection based on reading ability and interest
    
  • meet regularly with those reading the same selection
    
  • read according to the schedule set by the group and complete a record of that reading in a notebook or on a form such as the Sample Individual Reading Schedule included in the following pages
    
  • participate in group decisions (e.g., to determine the focus and topics of discussion; to decide how many pages or chapters will be read prior to each Literature Circle meeting)
    
  • participate in group discussions (e.g., take turns in various group roles; keep to the reading schedule; prepare for the discussion topic)
    
  • participate in the culminating presentation or activity
    
  • engage in self-assessment on a regular basis.

  Role information sheets, such as the samples in the following pages, are useful scaffolds that assist students as they are learning the procedures and expectations for each role during Literature Circles.

   

  Assessment and Evaluation of Reading

  Assessment and evaluation of reading should reflect the objectives of the curriculum and should assess both process and product. As well, assessment techniques should consider students' knowledge, skills, and attitudes and should be consistent with the instructional strategies used.

  To discover the general reading proficiency of students when they arrive in the classroom, it may be helpful for teachers to conduct a survey using a Reading Inventory or Reading Strategies Questionnaire, such as the examples in the following pages. These tools can help to determine students' attitudes and interests and provide diagnostic information which will guide instructional decision making. As well, it is useful for teachers to keep anecdotal notes to monitor student progress and guide instructional decisions.

  In a Middle Level reading program, teachers need to be aware of both the interests and the attitudes of their students. Students' attitudes toward reading can determine their willingness to read and their ability to become part of the community of readers. As well, students' interests, when taken into consideration during planning, can have a positive motivating effect upon the success of their reading and that of the entire reading community.

  A short interest/attitude survey can help teachers choose instructional methods and materials that will develop skills and motivate students to read. When students complete an Interest/Attitude Inventory, teachers can then match reading selections to those interests and help students to broaden their reading experiences and abilities.

  While this inventory is a valuable tool, teachers need to recognize that Middle Level students have rapidly changing interests. Therefore, it may be necessary to have students complete the survey two or three times during the course of the school year in order to keep informed about their current interests and changing attitudes.

  Another useful tool teachers can use to gain insight into their Middle Level students' reading abilities and understanding is a Reading Strategies Questionnaire. Teachers may choose to have students complete the questionnaire individually or they may use it as an interview sheet where students ask each other the questions, with one student recording the responses. The teacher may also interview students individually and record their responses. The interview format provides for dialogue which can enhance the students' understanding of their own reading processes and abilities. As well, if teachers conduct individual interviews, they are able to get an immediate picture of their students' metacognitive knowledge about reading. They can then provide on-the-spot mini-lessons about reading strategies that may assist their students with their future reading experiences. Students should be expected to answer the questions honestly and to the best of their ability.

  Interviews with students about their reading can provide teachers with additional assessment information. Interview questions, written or oral, should be open-ended. For example, written sentence stems such as the following encourage students to make individual and personal responses: I like to read when ..., When I go to the library I feel ..., Reading is ..., and When I am asked to read aloud I .... Information gathered during the interview can be kept in the form of anecdotal notes or audio recordings to inform instruction.

  Pre-, during, and post-reading activities provide useful formative and summative assessment opportunities. Such tools as semantic maps, Venn diagrams, anticipation guides, character maps, and Reader Response activities demonstrate the nature of students' prior knowledge and their depth of understanding. It is important to gather information about students' literal, inferential, critical, and personal understanding of what they read.

  Observation and assessment instruments such as story frames are useful for gathering information that determines students' literal, inferential, critical, and personal understanding about what they read. These can be administered orally or as a written assignment. A sample story frame is shown in the following pages. Additional sample assessment tools are provided on the following pages and throughout the curriculum guide.

  Reading the Novel

  Each of you will read your book according to the reading schedule set by consensus of the entire group; however, the book must be entirely read by (date to be determined by the teacher) . You may read in class or at home. You may read silently or aloud, providing your reading does not disturb other readers, or you may choose a combination of both. Each of you will complete an Individual Reading Schedule to remind you of what to read next and to serve as a record of your reading progress.

  Group Discussion and Interaction

  During Literature Circle discussions, each group member has the responsibility to:

  • offer sincere contributions
    
  • give everyone a turn to contribute
    
  • encourage others to participate
    
  • give reasons and examples from the book to support his or her ideas
    
  • listen carefully to others' contributions and ideas
    
  • ask questions for clarification
    
  • take turns in each group role
    
  • participate in making group decisions.

  Group Roles

  In each Literature Circle different students will take the roles of Discussion Co-ordinator, Summarizer, Language Master, and Recorder. The roles will rotate on a regular basis. Each group member will have the opportunity to experience each role more than once during the reading of the selection. (Other roles could be chosen depending upon students' abilities and needs.)

  Discussion Co-ordinator: The Discussion Co-ordinator leads discussion by identifying three to five questions that could lead to a discussion of this section of the book. These questions may be about such things as key ideas and issues, a character's actions, or an element of the writer's craft. The Discussion Co-ordinator shares these possible discussion questions with the group and asks if others have questions or topics that they think are important to discuss, and adds these to the list. The Discussion Co-ordinator then leads the group as it decides what to discuss first, second, and so on until the time is gone. As well, it is the Discussion Co-ordinator's responsibility to request teacher assistance if members of the group have questions or need assistance that cannot be provided within the group.

  Summarizer: In preparation for the discussion, the Summarizer writes a brief summary of the section and reads it or retells it orally to the group members. As well, the Summarizer must identify at least one key quotation in the section and provide a reason for its significance.

  Language Master: The Language Master selects and records a short list of new vocabulary and of interesting and powerful uses of language found in the section.

  Recorder: The Recorder, in collaboration with the group, completes a Group Summary Sheet at the conclusion of each meeting. This information provides details about how the group is functioning.

  Daily Projects

  After reading each agreed upon section of your Literature Circle novel, you will do the following:
  

  • respond to what you have read
    
  • discuss your reading responses with your Literature Circle group
    
  • add to your individual vocabulary lists, as instructed
    
  • construct and add to your sociogram, as instructed.

  Group Presentation Project: Character Get-togethers

  This project will help you to see overall patterns, themes, and connections between the Literature Circle novels and the characters in these novels. Each student will role play a character (preferably the main character) from the novel he/she has read and participate in a scenario in which that character is dramatized.

  Planning Session One: Literature Circle Groups

  • Discuss the major and minor characters that are clearly and strongly portrayed in the novel.
    
  • Decide who will role play which character. Everyone may decide to role play the main character.
    
  • Become very familiar with the character you will portray by rereading parts of the novel and discussing the character with group members. Record group ideas and suggestions for later reference. It is important to help each other fully understand and develop his or her character.

  Planning Session Two: Literature Circle Groups

  • Work together to complete the development of each group member's character. (It is essential to know your character well because you will assume his or her personality in the upcoming scenario.) You may choose to use props or costumes to enhance the role of your character.

  Planning Sessions Three and Four: Scenario Groups

  • In this new group, each of you will represent a different character from a different novel.
    
  • Ask your teacher for a scenario. Everyone must participate in writing the scenario script.
    
  • Work together to plan and develop your scenario, using any props and costumes that you need to make the characters come alive. The more that you can "get into" the minds of your characters, the better the presentation.
    
  • Remember to develop your character fully and to portray him or her realistically in this new situation. Throughout the scenario you must remain in character and demonstrate the connections that your group sees between the novels and their characters.
    
  • Use your logic and your imagination!

  Presentations

  Each scenario should be about 10 minutes long. You will be evaluated for:

  • validity of content. Characters should say only what would seem logical, given our knowledge of them through reading and discussion. Discussion throughout the scenario should clearly reflect the characters' personalities and particular points of view.
    
  • connections made between characters and their situations. Characters should interact and share their experiences realistically and as appropriate for the scenario, demonstrating the similarities in their situations.
    
  • creativity and originality. Props, costumes, visual aids, etc. may be used.
    
  • preparedness. Scripts or notes may be used discretely.